Abstract

This paper aims to demonstrate an understanding of human development theories and issues through critical analysis. Theories of human development are complex and broad; therefore, critical analysis helps to understand them better. This paper will comprehensively explore five human development theories, which are Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud), Cognitive Developmental Theory (Jean Piaget), Behavioral Theory (B.F. Skinner, John B. Watson), Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura), and Ecological Systems Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner). For each theory, the paper will critique the concepts, explore the challenging assumptions, and discuss its strengths and limitations. The paper will also integrate the theories covered and compare and contrast all five theories, discussing their differences and similarities, if any.

Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)

Psychoanalytic theory suggests that “human behavior is influenced by unconscious memories, thoughts, and urges” (Zhang, 2020). This theory is built on the notion that unconscious forces determine human behavior. Freud argues that a human psyche consists of id, ego, and superego. The theory states that the id is completely unconscious while the ego is connected to the conscious mind. According to Freud, human beings are driven by unconscious wishes they are unaware of. This unawareness leads to a self-defeating trait. Feud believed that humans deceive themselves by that they have reasons for their conduct or behaviors, and this self-deception limits their decisions.

The fundamental concepts of psychoanalytic theory are “repression, sublimation, ego, superego, id, and infantile sexuality.” Repression refers to barring disturbing reminiscences, thoughts, or moods from the conscious mind. Sublimation involves rejecting unwanted or intolerable urges. Infantile sexuality was Feud’s claim that a small kid sucking their mother’s breast experienced sexual pleasure. Although Freud’s concepts are informative, they lack empirical support. 

One of psychoanalytic theory’s strengths is that it is comprehensive. Zhang (2020) states, “Although the theory was originally intended to explain therapeutic psychological concepts, it comprehensively explains the nature of human development and all aspects of mental functioning.” Another strength is that the theory effectively identifies recurring patterns in humans. The limitations of psychoanalytic theory include its complexity, its concept of sexuality is confusing, and it blames mothers for most human complications during development. Further, the theory assumes that early childhood experiences have a deterministic and enduring impact on adult personality. This assumption overemphasizes the significance of early experiences and underestimates the potential for individual change throughout the lifespan.

Cognitive Developmental Theory (Jean Piaget)

Cognitive development theory “seeks to understand human learning, socialization, and behavior by looking at the brain’s internal cognitive processes” (Babakr et al., 2019). The theory consists of four cognitive development stages: sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage.

The sensorimotor, the first stage, starts when a child understands that the outside world exists separately from them. The second preoperational stage occurs when a child passes through the first stage, up to seven years. During this stage, “children can think about things symbolically, undergo language development, and develop memory and imagination” (Babakr et al., 2019). The development during this stage allows students to differentiate between past, future, and present events. The concrete operational stage occurs between the ages of 7 and 11 years. In this stage, children mature psychologically and exhibit skills such as logical reasoning. Children also become progressively conscious of external events. The last stage, the formal operational stage, begins around 11 or 12 years. This stage is characterized by increased progression in rational thinking—Piaget’s theory’s emphasis on stages of development conflicts with Freud’s theory’s early unconscious. Also, Piaget underestimates early abilities. Studies show that infants may possess more advanced cognitive capacities.

One significant strength of cognitive developmental theory is that it clearly and concisely explains the stages of child development. Secondly, the theory is accurate, which has led to the theory being used ever since. The limitations of this theory include Piaget’s stages, which have been criticized for assuming universality, potentially overlooking cultural and contextual variations (Babakr et al., 2019), overestimating teens’ ability, and underestimating young children’s ability. Further, while the theory assumes that the stages of development are universal, this assumption may not fully account for cultural variations and individual differences.

Behavioral Theory (B.F. Skinner, John B. Watson)

Behavioral theory focuses on noticeable, computable events and behaviors. This theory suggests that human behavior is “a reflex evoked by a stimulus or a consequence of history to earlier exposure to reinforcements and punishments paired with our current motivational states and stimuli” (Sinha, 2020). It is based on the notion that human behavior is acquired from interacting with the external environment. Skinner and Watson argued that if they were given a group of young children, their behavior would be determined by the environment they would be raised in. They believed that human behavior is not determined by genetics but by the environment. This assumption is inaccurate since environmental factors do not exclusively determine human behavior; genetic predispositions also play a crucial role. 

The main principle of behavioral theory is that “learning is a process of conditioning.” The theory suggests that human behavior is not acquired genetically but learned through conditioning. Another critical concept is stimulus-responses sequence, which is behavioral theory’s key element. It suggests that behaviors are acquired through a stimulus. This concept was experimented with by studying a dog’s response to a bell ring. One of the strengths of this theory is its ability to perceive and measure behaviors. Also, the theory can be tested and justified in real life (Sinha, 2020). Limitations of the theory include ethical concerns (use of reinforcement and punishment raises ethical concerns) and limited explanation of complex behaviors.

Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)

Social learning theory suggests that observation and modeling are the key contributors to learning. The theory argues that learning is a complex and gradual process influenced by many factors, not just the external environment. Bandura believes that “people learn through observing, imitating, and modeling other people’s behavior” (de la Fuente et al., 2023). This assumption is precise because children often acquire new behaviors by mimicking the actions of adults or peers in their social environment.

Bandura’s theory consists of four concepts: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Attention refers to a human degree or ability to observe behaviors. The theory states that people learn by paying attention to appealing, similar, or impressive models. Retention refers to how well people remember a behavior they have observed. For example, a student will be more inclined to watch football in order to understand the rules. Further, reproduction refers to a human’s ability to perform a behavior they had observed, while motivation is the degree to which a person is motivated to repeat a behavior.

Social learning strengths include: It is easy to understand, it is flexible in explaining human behavior and learning (de la Fuente et al., 2023), and it gives a clear picture of how people learn from others. On the other hand, one of the key limitations of social learning theory is that it cannot be used as a general measure of human behavior. Another limitation is that it ignores biological factors that influence human behavior.

Ecological Systems Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner)

Ecological systems theory explains how social environments influence human development. The theory suggests human development results from many interconnected environmental factors (Sadownik, 2023). One assumption of this theory is that it assumes that various interconnected systems influence development. This perspective may oversimplify the intricate interactions, overlooking systems’ dynamic and non-linear nature.

The concepts of ecological systems theory are based on environmental systems that influence human development. They include microsystem (child’s immediate environment), mesosystem (interaction between a child and microsystems), exosystem (events that are not directly connected to a child but are influential and essential for their development), macrosystem (the broad outside environment that influences a child’s development), and chronosystem (all human life experiences) (Sadownik, 2023)

One of the theory’s key strengths is its broad application of factors influencing human development. Secondly, the theory emphasizes the significance of environmental influences that affect human development. On the other hand, the theory’s limitations include limited research regarding ecosystems, and it is challenging to identify behavioral problems or circumstances if the environment is too broad.

Comparing/contrasting the theories

While Freud emphasizes unconscious drives, Piaget focuses on cognitive stages. In contrast, Skinner’s Behavioral Theory emphasizes observable behavior, diverging from Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, which integrates observational learning. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory expands the scope, considering the impact of multiple systems on development. Freud and Piaget emphasize internal processes, differing from the external focus of Skinner and Bandura. Meanwhile, Bronfenbrenner incorporates both, stressing the bidirectional relationship between individuals and their environment (Sadownik, 2023). Theories also diverge on determinism, with Freud’s psychoanalysis more deterministic compared to the environmental determinism in Skinner’s Behavioral Theory and the reciprocal determinism in Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. This comparative analysis highlights the richness and complexity of human development theories, each contributing unique insights and perspectives.