1. Bandura proposed 4 cognitive processes underlying observational learning. Apply those 4 processes to a child learning morality.

The four cognitive processes proposed by Bandura are attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Attention- A child observes moral behavior from adults or older people.

Retention- A child retains observed moral behaviors in memory. They internalize moral actions through memory recall.

Reproduction- A child imitates observed moral behaviors and attempts to replicate them in real-life situations.

Motivation- A child is motivated by consequences and reinforcements. Positive reinforcement for displaying moral behavior enhances motivation, while negative consequences discourage immoral actions.

• List two shortcomings of longitudinal designs.

• They are time-consuming
• They are costly compared to other study types.
• Why is it difficult to distinguish genetic from experiential influences?

It is difficult to differentiate genetic from experimental influences because they both regularly work through each other- they often have the same experimental influences. Also, genes and the environment often interact in complex ways. “Genes can influence how people respond to their environment, while also the environment can influence gene expression” (Zwir et al., 2021).

• In Erikson’s theory, what is meant by “industry vs. inferiority”?

Industry vs. Inferiority is the fourth stage of Erikson’s theory. It is a stage where “children enter into the greater society beyond the family for the first time” (Miller & Lang, 2022). During this stage, a child learns new skills. When they successfully navigate this stage, they feel valuable and worthy.

• Provide two shapes of idealized developmental change and an example of each.
• S-shaped (Sigmoid) Development- It is also known as logistic growth. It involves an initial slow start followed by rapid acceleration and eventually leveling off.

Example- Development of a skill. Initially, there is a slow learning phase, followed by a period of fast learning as knowledge becomes relevant, and eventually, as the skill approaches its peak, the rate of improvement levels off.

1. U-shaped development- It involves an initial decline and then a fast increase trend.

Example- Emotional adjustment when adapting to a new environment. Initially, there might be a decrease in emotional well-being due to the transition stress. However, after some time, as an individual adapts, there is an increase in emotional well-being.

• What are three strengths and two weaknesses of Freud’s theory?

Strengths–

1. Emphasis on early development- Freud’s theory highlights the significance of early childhood experiences in shaping personality.
2. The theory focuses on the unconscious, acknowledging its role.
3. It is a very comprehensive theory.

Weaknesses-

1. The theory lacks empirical evidence. Many of its concepts, such as the Oedipus complex and the structure of the mind (ego, superego, and id), are difficult to test scientifically.
2. Overemphasis on sexuality- Freud’s theory overemphasizes sexuality as the primary driver of behavior.
3. What are three strengths and two weaknesses of Erikson’s theory?

Strengths-

1. The theory gives a comprehensive framework of an individual’s psychosocial development.
2. It comprehensively conceptualizes the influence of relationships on people and society.
3. Unlike some developmental theories that focus primarily on childhood, Erikson’s theory focuses on the entire lifespan.

Weaknesses-

1. Cultural biasness since it was developed based on Western cultural context observations
2. Erikson’s stages are unclearly defined, making them challenging to operationalize and measure objectively.
3. Describe and contrast traditional learning theory and social learning theory.

Traditional learning “theory suggests that individuals acquire new behaviors through external stimuli and environmental factors.” In contrast, “social learning theory suggests that social behavior is learned by observing and imitating the behavior of others” (Scavarelli et al., 2021). Traditional and Social learning theories differ in various ways, including the learning mechanism, where Traditional Learning Theory emphasizes conditioning and reinforcement while Social Learning Theory emphasizes observational learning and modeling. Secondly, Traditional Learning Theory often is individual-focused, while Social Learning Theory focuses on the importance of social influences in learning (Scavarelli et al., 2021).

• What is evolutionary psychology, and how is it used to explain social behavior? Choose a particular behavior as an illustration and state precisely how an evolutionary psychologist might explain the existence of the behavior.

Evolutionary psychology is the study of the perception of human behavior based on the principles of evolutionary biology. Evolutionary psychology is used to explain social behavior through its suggestion that many psychological behaviors have evolved as adaptations to solve problems related to survival and reproduction.

Behavior for illustration- A female’s preference for qualities like intelligence, kindness, or physical fitness in a potential husband can be explained as an evolved mechanism to ensure the well-being and survival of her children and herself.

1. Are human development, knowledge, and behavior primarily the result of nature (biological forces) or nurture (environmental factors)? Answer this question from the perspective of 4 of the following.
2. John B. Watson- Watson believed that human development resulted from environmental factors. He suggested that all behaviors are learned through environmental experiences.
3. Sigmund Freud- Freud suggested that human development is influenced by both nature and nurture. He highlighted the importance of innate drives (nature) and childhood experiences (nurture) in human development.
4. John Bowlby- Bowlby believed that human development was influenced by both nature and nurture by highlighting the significance of early attachments (nature) and the impact of environmental influence on human development.
5. Albert Bandura- Bandura believed that both nature and nurture play a role in human development. He acknowledged observational learning (nurture) and the role of cognitive processes (nature) in learning and behavior.

Essay Questions

Question 11

Erik Erikson – “Childhood and Society”

Erikson’s “Childhood and Society” discusses the eight stages of psychological development. The stages emphasize social relations and culture’s influence on childhood development. Each of the eight stages represents a stage or phase an individual must pass through to achieve healthy development. In the text, Erikson also explores the concept of identity crisis in adolescence. Erikson argues that during this stage, individuals struggle to understand themselves. 

The text was written in 1950 after the Second World War. Social conflicts and a quest for transformation and identity marked this era. As a psychoanalyst and cultural anthropologist, his background and experience influenced his focus on the interrelation between people and society, hence writing “Childhood and Society.” Erikson’s writing style suggests that he was thoughtful and reflective. His writing reflects his understanding of childhood psychology and societal influences. Erikson appears to be both a methodologist and a theorist. As a methodologist, he integrates psychoanalytic methods with culture and history. As a theorist, he discusses and explores his psychosocial theory, which emphasizes the interaction between individual development and societal influences.

Regarding the writing methodology, Erikson combines the insights of psychoanalysis with a broader cultural and historical perspective. He writes, “Combining the insights of clinical psychoanalysis with a new approach to cultural anthropology, Childhood, and Society deals with the relationships between childhood training and cultural accomplishment, analyzing the infantile and the mature, the modern and the archaic elements in human motivation” (Erikson, 1993). The historical period of the writing is after the Second World War when people struggled to find a sense of identity and purpose (Erikson, 1993). Erikson’s work aimed to develop a developmental framework that would address the challenges of childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

The dominance theories of the time were theories of traditional psychoanalysis. Erikson’s psychological theory challenged the dominance of traditional psychoanalysis theories. This was because his ideas incorporated social and cultural dimensions, offering a more optimistic view of human development. Unlike the then dominance theories, he emphasized potential growth and positive outcomes at each stage. “Childhood and Society” exemplifies Erikson’s larger vision or theoretical perspective of human development as a lifelong process shaped by the relationship between individuals and society. 

Question 12

Traditionally, evangelical Christians have renounced any evolutionary framework because evolutionary psychology does not align with Christians’ faith. Most Christians view evolution as a process set and fixed by God; hence, they find conflict between understanding human behaviors through evolutionary psychology and their religious beliefs (Petersen ET AL., 2020). As a result, Christians engaging with evolutionary psychology can judge/discern research findings by separating empirical observations from speculative interpretations that might conflict with their theological views.

However, Christians do not have to avoid research done within the evolutionary framework. Engaging with research within this framework can help them to broaden their understanding of God’s creation. Petersen et al. (2020) argue that Christians can acknowledge the diverse ways life has developed by exploring the mechanisms and processes involved in evolution. Also, Engaging with evolutionary research can be a way for Christians to seek a deeper understanding of the natural world and recognize God’s creative power.

Christians can appropriate findings from research conducted within the evolutionary framework. First, Christians may see the evolutionary process as a part of God’s creative methods. Secondly, Christians can use research findings to enhance their theological understanding. Thirdly, evolutionary psychology findings, which explore the evolutionary roots of human behavior, can be appropriated by Christians to gain insights into human nature. Lastly, since understanding the evolutionary origins of some behaviors can contribute to discussions on morality and ethics, Christians can appropriate these findings to inform ethical and moral considerations. The degree to which Christians can engage with the perspective of evolutionary theory can vary from full acceptance (fully accepting the compatibility of the framework with their faith), partial or selective engagement (engaging with specific aspects), and creationism (where Christians do not accept evolutionary perspective entirely).